14.The Plant Kingdom

Botanical collections were made in the Grand Canyon area in 1941, with the permission and cooperation of the National Park Service. Complete sets of these collections were placed on file at the Herbarium of the Museum of Northern Arizona and at the Herbarium of the Grand Canyon Natural History Association.

The knowledge of the botany of this area was far from complete in 1941, and the classifications of many species were a matter of debate. In contrast to the Hopi, the Havasupai did not name or recognize a large number of local species. Only the plant species which were significant to the Havasupai are discussed in any detail within this chapter.

There were a number of steps in the ethnobotanical field work. The first step was to collect specimens of the local flora, preferably in the presence of an informant. The plant was placed in a plant press and notes were taken for the botanical and ethnological records. Either at the time of collection or later, when it was possible to sit down and be protected from the wind, the plant or plants would be discussed with the informant. As a general rule, the native name of a botanical species was not established until at least a half dozen consistent identifications by as many informants were obtained, using at least two different specimens of the same species. After the specimens were identified, an ethnographic interview followed to discuss the uses and significance of the plant.

Plants which were unidentifiable to the informants in the dried state were usually the same plants which were not recognized in the field.

SPORE-BEARING PLANTS

This name was applied to any green growth of a nondescript nature growing under or near water. Moss growing on rocks was called awi’-hamusukwaala “rock moss.” Moss growing on trees was called ‘i’i’-hamusukwaala.

Occasionally grew on trees in the higher altitudes along the South Rim. The plant was collected, burned to an ash, and rubbed on sores to dry them out (P.B., M.M.). The name came from aqo’o pinyon and yavinymi’i whiskers.

FAMILY AGARICALES

P. B. cautioned against touching any mushroom which was shedding black spores, lest the black dust get in the eyes and make them sore or even cause blindness.

FAMILY EQUISETACEAE

This grew along the edges of the river near the village. Children pulled the joints apart and produced a whistling sound by blowing across them as one blows across the mouth of a bottle (D.I., Mrs. B.J.). The name means “long, cylindrical, spine-like.”

FAMILY POLYPODIACEAE

These ferns grew near the village during spring. The name translates as “water whiskers.” Occasionally the meadowrue (Thalictrum fendleri) was confused with this fern.

SEED PLANTS

FAMILY PINACEAE

The single-leaf pinyon occurred frequently in the study area and differed from Pinus edulis only in that it had one instead of two leaves.

Pinyon wood was used in much the same fashion as that of the juniper: for firewood and house construction. E.U. pointed out, however, that pinyon wood made a better fire and left better coals for cooking than juniper. The wood was also used to make the knife for trimming mescal heads.

When porcupine, bobcat, or badger was cooked in an earth pit, sprigs of pinyon were placed in the pit with the animal. This was said to improve the taste of the cooked meat.

Pinyon gum, anaiya, was melted near a fire and applied to a cut on man or horse. E.U. said that pinyon gum was used in the paint used on the base of arrows. Spier (1928) stated that pinyon pitch was liberally daubed on the buckskin bindings of cradleboards. The gum was also used to waterproof basketry water jugs and basketry drinking cups. Melted gum was similarly used to plug a leaky canteen or other container (E.U.).

Pinyon nuts were by far the best-known product of the tree. Unfortunately, the crop was usually very light and a good harvest could be expected only once in several years. In the seasons when the crop was good, everyone was busy collecting the nuts. Martha, age three, was pointed out as being old enough to pick pinyon nuts. In good years, children were excused from the school in the village to help with the harvest.

In September the cones were picked green, before they opened, and placed on a bed of coals. The cones opened from the heat and the nuts were obtained. In October and November the cones opened naturally and the nuts fell to the ground, where they were picked up. Whole families took part in the collecting of pinyon nuts. P. B. said his family could get as much as fifty pounds a day, and E.U. said a family might gather from six to twenty sacks of nuts in a season. Formerly they were an important food source. In 1941 they were sold in considerable quantities to stores near the reservation where they brought nine or ten cents per pound.

Various localities were known as good pinyon sections, and camps were made there during the pinyon harvests. The word for pinyon gum, anaiya, may have been derived from an older Yuman term for mesquite gum (anaala mesquite). The word for cone was ‘qopai, for needle ’qo-theq, and for dead (pinyon) tree ’qo-pii’i.

Found only in the high part of the Plateau in such areas as the Grand Canyon Village. The cones might be placed on a blanket and pounded with sticks to free the nuts, which were then roasted and eaten like pinyon nuts (M.T.). P. B. denied that the nuts were eaten.

The Walapai were called “yellow pine people,” hwaal-pai.

A few of these trees grew below the canyon rim near Grand Canyon Village, but they were most abundant on the San Francisco Peaks to the south. They were important in Hopi ceremonials as symbols of rain. The Havasupai apparently at one time used branches of this tree in a manner similar to, and in imitation of, the Hopi. E.U. said that the leaves were good medicine. In winter they were boiled and given to the sick. The name can be broken down into the following two words: kathad coyote and he’i’ tail.

FAMILY CUPRESSACEAE

Juniper wood was very important as a source of firewood during the winter seasons, when the people lived on the Plateau. The winter houses on the Plateau were built of juniper logs and brush and covered with dirt. The pole of the hoop-and-pole game might be made of juniper (S.J.).

The bark was frequently confused by those unfamiliar with the Southwest with that of the cliff-rose, Cowania (Whiting 1938). Juniper bark was crushed and used for tinder (E.U.), particularly with the fire drill (M.T.). The crushed bark might also be twisted into a rope, tied at intervals with yucca, and wrapped into a coil, the free end of which was set on fire and kept smoldering by blowing on it at intervals. Fire could be carried in this fashion from early dawn until noon (E.U.). This “slow match” was called ’o’ho’kwiitia’ (from ’o’o’o fire and -kwi to twist).

Bark was commonly put on the top of the brush covering of the winter houses to keep the dirt from falling through (P.B.). Spier (1928) mentioned crushed cedar bark used as a stopper for the basketry water bottle. He also mentioned bark dolls for little girls (it is possible that these were made of cliff-rose bark).

Green juniper branches were used singly or together with other plants as a cure for colds.

Juniper berries ripen in the fall. The Havasupai may have picked the berries off the ground, but more often they collected small branches, laid them on a blanket, and beat them with a stick to free the berries, which then might be dried in the sun and stored for use in the winter. When they were to be used, they were pounded or ground on a milling stone and then soaked in water for a couple of hours until the seeds fell to the bottom. The pulp was squeezed out and thrown away, and the remaining liquid was served as a drink. P. B. said to add a little sugar; like most Havasupai, he did not particularly like this drink but thought that the Walapai and Navajo did.

Kitner (1929) reported a belief to the effect that the Havasupai would live as long as the dwarfed juniper continued to grow from the top of the rock pinnacles towering over the village. No mention of this was made by any of the informants in 1941. The mythological significance of these rocks was vastly overrated, and this belief remained doubtful.

The Havasupai also occasionally came into contact with the one-seeded juniper, J. monosperma, which was abundant to the south and east.

FAMILY EPHEDRACEAE

Other species, such as E. fasciculata, E. nevadensis, and E. torreyana were found within the Havasupai range, and it is doubtful if they were distinguished by the Havasupai. They were common in the canyon and at lower elevations on the Plateau.

The upper portions of Ephedra were collected, put into a coffee pot with cold water, and brought to a boil. The tea was allowed for boil for not over two minutes; if boiled longer, it would become bitter. P.B. said it tasted better when made during the fall months. This drink was a well-known substitute for coffee.

Spier (1928) said that the stems were dried in bundles for storage. The plant was thought to have medicinal properties. A handful of twigs was used to brush spines off prickly pear fruit. The name means “things to become warm.”

FAMILY TYPHACEAE

Very bedraggled specimens were seen near the spring above the village and below Mooney Falls. This plant may once have been more abundant than it was in 1941. Until better material can be located, the species must remain in doubt.

The stalk was sometimes used to make toy arrows. The stalk and leaves were used in thatching houses. E.U. said that the pollen used to be used as a face paint. The ripe fruiting heads were eaten “like corn.”

FAMILY GRAMINEAE

There were a great many grasses in Havasupai territory. As is true of this group everywhere, they were exceedingly abundant both in numbers and species, and, with a few exceptions, it was difficult for the average person to distinguish them. The terminology of grasses among any people, civilized or primitive, was therefore apt to be confused and inconsistent. The Havasupai were no exception. Many of the grass names obtained were descriptive terms evolved for the occasion; others were so broad in their application as to be practically meaningless. Unfortunately, it never became clear at any time during the field work whether or not this understandable confusion in terminology carried over into actual usage. Apparently, most of the Havasupai women of a generation or two ago, particularly when faced with a food shortage, went into the fields and collected grass seeds. It did not matter whether they were of one species or several.

M.T. called Agropyron smithii by this Havasupai name, which means “grasshopper grass.” She also applied this name to Dactylis glomerata, an introduced grass not previously reported in the state of Arizona. It was somewhat doubtful if she had ever seen it previously. Upon another occasion M.T. gave the name ‘iwilakumpammka’ to Stipa comata.

Many of the grasses belonging to this genus were characterized by a relatively linear, frequently curved flower cluster set at a rather sharp angle to the stem, something like a very narrow flag. The name, applied rather consistently to all members of this genus, was said to refer to the appearance of the stem: “stem go up in hook” (cf. halaka hooked). The name was also applied to Muhlenbergia porteri, which vaguely resembles some of the Bouteloua species.

Two sacks of seed were washed down Cataract Creek at the time of the big flood in 1910. After the flood this grass came up all over the cultivated area; it has been a great drawback to native cultivation, as it is exceedingly difficult to eradicate.

It was very difficult to tell from the conflicting data at hand to what species or group of species this name was applied. In any case, the grass or grasses included in this category by the Havasupai were an important food. M.M. said the plant looked like wheat and grew two or three feet high on side walls of the canyon. The fruiting heads were gathered in the fall and rubbed between the palms so that the seeds dropped into a basket (M.T.). The seeds were stored in blankets or bags of skin in caves (M.T.).

Traditionally an important food grass. Attached to the base of the seeds were little bunches of fine hairs which had to be removed before the seeds were eaten. This grass was formerly much more abundant than it was in 1941. By this time livestock grazed it so that it did not come to maturity, and it was very difficult to find in sufficient quantities to make it worth collecting for human food.

Although reeds were not observed growing in the Grand Canyon area, E.U. reported seeing them at both Phantom Ranch and Cataract Canyon. These reeds were used for arrowshafts, apa’ata’a (apa’a arrow, ata’a reed). Mats (’ita’kwiva) for drying yucca fruit pulp, baked mescal, peaches, or figs were sometimes made of reeds. These were held together with deerskin thongs or sinew twined through the reeds at half a dozen points (Spier 1928). Pipe stems were made from sections of reed (E.U., D.I.).

One of the familiar species in the bluegrass genus. Common in the Plateau and upper portions of the side canyons, muttongrass ripened from early summer till August and was collected in June, July, and August. It was formerly very abundant and was an important food. A group of women would go together to collect the seeds.

E.U. said that this grass was boiled and the liquid drunk as a laxative. It grew on the Plateau and was used occasionally. Other informants failed to recognize the specimen, and the data, therefore, remain doubtful. The name means “grass-gray.”

This plant was apparently not cultivated by the Havasupai, although they were familiar with it and used commercial wheat flour extensively.

The word for corn means “from seed.” Havasupai corn was very similar to the varieties raised by the Hopi, although it lacked the large range of color variations. Varieties which were present in 1941 were badly intermixed.

Both the Havasupai and the Hopi raised a quantity of a long-seasoned white corn that often had an admixture of red. It was used as a basic staple for winter storage. In addition, both tribes raised a short-seasoned, quick-maturing blue variety for early eating. Although some other color varieties were raised, they did not have the special cultural significance for the Havasupai that they had for the Hopi. It was clearly evident that varieties were constantly being obtained from neighboring agricultural tribes and, to a lesser extent, from non-Indians. For a long period of time mutual borrowing had occurred between the Hopi and the Havasupai. In addition, there were varieties grown in 1941 which originally had been obtained from the Walapai. A small variety—with ears about five inches long—had come by trade from the Mohave through the Walapai (Spier 1928). Such borrowings were stimulated by local catastrophes, such as the 1910 flood. Accounts of crop failure among the Pueblos relate how the Hopi and even the Zuni visited the Havasupai in search of food.

FAMILY CYPERACEAE

Although not observed in 1941, Scirpus olneyi was reported growing in Cataract Canyon in the vicinity of the village by the river by Deaver and Haskell (1955). Children sometimes braided it to make a whip. In the name, hamusu’iiv means “cattail” (Typha domingensis), and -puuta’-puuta’ means “long and cylindric.”

FAMILY JUGLANDACEAE

These trees were first planted by the resident Indian agent some time before 1925 (P.B.). In 1941 a number of fine large trees grew near the agency, and several families had trees of their own. The name refers to nuts.

P.B. said that the Box K Ranch and adjacent area in Cataract Canyon was called kumvicut’kakuwa’a, “walnuts-grow-there,” because of the walnut trees growing in the canyon.

FAMILY LILIACEAE

This plant was occasionally found in the semi-forested area along the south rim of the Grand Canyon during May and June. M.T. stated that the Havasupai ate wild onions only when very hungry, since they caused headaches. They were baked in a small, unlined pit in the ground, with a fire built on top of the buried onions.

Cushing (1882) did not mention cultivated onions in his report. While onions were occasionally cultivated in 1941, they were not as important as among the Hopi and other Pueblo groups.

This plant, which has a bulb like an onion, grew near Grand Canyon Village. In the old days the Havasupai were not supposed to eat deer meat for a month after the deer had eaten this plant. Mariposa was eaten with bread and mescal.

FAMILY AGAVACEAE

Century plants grew abundantly along benches of the Grand Canyon and adjacent areas, and occasional plants were found on the desert slopes above and below the village. The collection and preparation of mescal is described in detail in Chapter 3.

Minor uses of the plant included the manufacture of spoons used for thin drinks (S.J.) and of a fiber brush used for the hair and for cleaning grinding stones. To make the brush, the dried matter of a dead and rotten leaf was knocked free from the fibers, which were then bent in two. The upper end of this brush was wrapped with a cord, and the bent portion was covered with buckskin or cloth. The loose fibers were cut to the right length and hardened by burning the ends.

Beargrass was occasionally found in clumps on the side slopes of canyons and along trails within the canyons. The leaves were woven into a coarse mat upon which mescal was dried. The lower stalk was split open to form an alternative base on which to dry mescal. Leaves were used for thatch. A section of the flower stalk was flattened on both sides and pitted and notched on one side to serve as the hearth of the fire drill (Spier 1928).

This broad-leaved yucca with large, fleshy fruits was abundant in the canyons above the village and on the Plateau.

The leaves contained a good fiber. The terminal spine and a section of the back of the leaf were removed and pounded to free this fiber from the fleshy portion of the leaf. The fiber was often braided into ropes (three- to six-ply) from twelve to thirty feet long that were used for many purposes, including handling horses. The word for braid was sinavoka and for a braid of yucca, amanat-sinaava.

The Havasupai had uses for many parts of this plant. For example, the terminal spine of yucca served as a needle. A ring of soapweed leaves wrapped in buckskin was used in the hoop-and-pole game. Juice wrung from the leaves which had been heated on the fire was used as a glue to put poison on arrowpoints (Spier 1928). A bundle of yucca fiber was used as a brush with which to apply face paint made of mescal (Spier 1928).

The vegetal material from dried, dead leaves was collected and boiled with pinyon gum. When cool, this hardened mixture was pounded to a powder and then mixed with water to fill in the interstices of baskets which were to hold water. A coat of red paint and then a coat of pinyon gum followed this procedure.

Roots were used as a soap, particularly for washing the hair (E.U.). The roots were peeled, dried, and stored for use. Around the 1850s scalps taken in war were washed in soapweed (Spier 1928).

The fruit, which ripened in September, was prepared for storage in the shape of a mat (see Chapter 3). Fresh fruits were split with the fingers, dried in the sun, and stored in a sack for future use. The fruits were cooked by boiling (E.U., S.J., others). They were considered a sweet food, and Cushing (1882) reported that they were chewed and allowed to ferment to increase their sweetness.

The name is derived from longer forms: manat-tafsa, meaning “yucca flowers,” and manat-qwita-qwita, meaning “points at ends of leaf.”

This was occasionally found in the village. The leaves were used to tie or repair holes in sacking (E.U., P.B., others). Leaves were also used as tally sticks to keep track of scores in the hidden-ball game. The root and fruits apparently were not used.

FAMILY SALICACEAE

Cottonwoods were found as occasional trees along the bottoms of the canyons leading toward the village. At the spring just above the village they were abundant. Throughout the lower portion of the Cataract Canyon, cottonwoods were sometimes found in thick stands.

Although the wood was poor, it was virtually the only firewood available close to the village. It was also used for fence posts and in the construction of shades (ramadas) and native-style houses in the canyon. M.M. said that bowls and plates were cut out of cottonwood. Drums were made from hollowed cottonwood logs.

The leafy branches were used to thatch ramadas and houses and were carried in the hand and attached to the neck and biceps of the clown who appeared at dances (Spier 1928).

Cottonwoods provided important, though not preferred, materials for basketry. In the spring the soft, green bark and leaves were stripped from the stems with the fingers. The clean, white stems were then split into three parts and stored in bundles two to three feet long and four to six inches in diameter. Cottonwood, considered inferior to catclaw stems for use in twined basketry, was mainly used in coiled basketry, both for the rods and the binder. Squawberry twigs were the preferred material for coiled basketry, since it did not brown with age like cottonwood.

E.U. said that the unopened cottonwood “berry” was sometimes eaten or chewed like gum. D.I. said that when the cottonwood trees shed white stuff (seeds), it was time to plant; this, he said, occurred late in May and June.

The names of several localities reflected the presence of cottonwoods: Grand View, on the south rim of the Grand Canyon, was called ahaa’kiyo’o; a spring in upper Cataract Canyon was known as ahaakuwa’a’; a lone cottonwood in Lee Canyon was called ahaa ‘thawa’kuwa’a, and at the head of Matkatamibe Canyon there was ahaa’kumuhanate “Cottonwood Knob.”

This tree was found growing just below the rim of the Grand Canyon and on the highlands north and south of the Grand Canyon (Dodge 1926). The name means “cottonwood-partner.”

A fairly large specimen, with rather broad leaves, was growing in Havasupai Village in 1941. Willow wood was used for fence posts and as fuel for fires. The young shoots were used in basketry in the same way that cottonwood was, but some people considered it inferior to cottonwood.

It was common along the riverbank in Cataract Canyon. The young shoots were collected and prepared for use in basketry in the same manner as cottonwood. E.U. said that the stems were split into four, instead of three, parts. P.B. said that tongs for removing cactus fruit were made from the coyote willow.

FAMILY FAGACEAE

It was found in the yellow-pine areas. The wood was used to make handles for implements, such as hoes and axes (E.U). The acorns were sometimes eaten in October or November after they fell from the trees (P.B.). M.T. said the acorns were eaten raw or they were parched on a tray. Sometimes they were ground and put into a beef or deer soup a few minutes before it finished cooking, in order to give it flavor.

Scrub oak was found growing in the canyons and on the Plateau at medium altitudes in the pinyon-juniper belt. The wood was used for the handles of hoes (E.U.) and axes (M.M.). The acorns were not eaten (M.M., P.B., others).

FAMILY ULMACEAE

A few trees were seen in the inhabited section of Cataract Canyon. B.B. said hackberry might be used for firewood.

FAMILY MORACEAE

This tree was found in Cataract Canyon, where it was cultivated. There was no definite information as to whether it had been introduced here by the Indians (Dodge 1936). The Walapai name for mulberry was puim’aa.

Fig trees, probably introduced sometime between 1890 and 1910, were mentioned by James (1912). They were not mentioned by Coues (1900) nor by Cushing (1882), both of whom gave fairly extensive lists of crops.

Many families obtained their supply of figs through the government agent. The fig trees themselves were obtained from outside sources, or by inheritance. Many fig trees were lost in the 1910 flood.

Several varieties of figs were raised in 1941. They were the first fruits to ripen in the summer. Many of them were eaten fresh, but a considerable number were split open with the fingers, dried in the sun for several days, and stored away in sacks for winter consumption. Both men and women helped in these gathering and drying activities (Mrs. B.J.). Fruit which had fallen to the ground was picked up, ground on the metate, and mixed with water to form a thick paste. The paste was then dried in a six by twelve inch sheet, which was preserved for winter, when it was eaten without cooking (P.B.). The Havasupai name for figs may be broken down into the following: kwe- several things are, theq leaves, and vutaiya big.

FAMILY LORANTHACEAE

This plant was pounded and boiled for food (B.B.). The name means “yellow juniper.”

FAMILY POLYGONACEAE

This plant was a spiny shrub with yellow or, sometimes, white flowers. P. B., who seems to have been the only informant to see the specimen, said it was used as a medicine. “Take off the leaves and boil them for half an hour. Drink three times a day for a headache.” Treatment was repeated the second day if no relief was secured (P.B.). The name translates as “woodrat tail.”

This plant, which grew along the Walapai trail, was characterized by a hollow, inflated stem. D.I. said that in the early spring (April and early May) leafy greens were gathered, boiled from five to ten minutes, and eaten. A child’s toy was made from the stem by cutting it off at both ends and using it as a drinking tube (D.I., Mrs. B.J.). According to Mrs. B.J., the name meant “earth dogbane.”

This plant was common in the yellow-pine country. M.T. said the name meant “wind wife.”

One informant said it was used for tea. Data doubtful. The name comes from the words ‘iwila grass or herb, and thava gray.

Rumex crispus was collected in the Havasupai village where it was abundant throughout the inhabited section of the canyon. The rosettes of leaves were cut off the root stalk, rather than pulled from the ground, so that the plant was not killed (E.U.). The leaves were then boiled and eaten.

FAMILY CHENOPODIACEAE

The familiar desert saltbush was found growing in many places on the Plateau, as well as in the side canyons, particularly near the village. A handful of leaves in water produces a soapy lather which was rubbed over the body to cure an itch or rash, such as chickenpox or measles. It was also used to wash hair (M.T., Mrs. B.J.). These uses were specifically denied by D.I., P.B. and others. The name of the plant was well known.

This was a well-known and important wild food. Spier (1928), who identified it as a pigweed, said that the fruiting heads were collected and allowed to dry for a week and then rubbed between the palms over a tray basket so that the seeds might be winnowed. E.U. said that the entire plant was pulled up and laid on a canvas. If the seeds would not shake out, the fruits were stripped off the stalks with the fingers and then rubbed between the palms to free the seeds. The loose seeds were then placed on a canvas, which was tossed up and down in order that the wind might blow away the chaff.

M.T. said that the seeds were knocked directly into a carrying basket, but E.U. thought that the seeds were too small for that method and that the heads were broken off and put on a canvas as described for iciyace (see next entry). Both agreed that seeds were rubbed between the palms to free them from the chaff.

The numerous ways of preparing the seeds for food are discussed in detail in Chapter 4. The name is derived from thava white, gray and kata’uutika’ small, round balls.

The identity of iciyace remains in doubt, since many informants gave this name to Atriplex rosea, an introduced weed. The plant usually referred to by this Havasupai name was found in moist localities on the Plateau. It was a rather nondescript-looking plant, without showy flowers, which grew about three feet high. It may have been a Chenopodium, but this identification remains uncertain. The name comes from ici many little things, and yace seed.

It was occasionally found on the Plateau, and used mainly for horse-feed. One Havasupai person called it olomave, (from vo’olo’o horse and maa’a’ eat). Others called it ahanymmsava (from aha’a water and nymmsava white).

This familiar, introduced tumbleweed was found around the village. The name, which was often applied to other plants, means “plant with stickers.” D.I. noted that horses like to eat the young plants.

FAMILY AMARANTHACEAE

Although several species occurred in the area, only one was collected. It was found in waste places on the Plateau and in the village, particularly around the gardens.

The leaves of the young plants were picked and cooked like spinach. When the plants were mature (August in the valley, later on the Plateau), the heads were collected in a basket, and dried until the fine black seeds fell out. Spier (1928) and E.U. said the heads were rubbed between the palms. M.M. was probably closer to the facts when she said, “Brush the seeds off with your hand.” The seeds, often stored in granaries along with corn (E.U), were still being used as food in 1941.

FAMILY RANUNCULACEAE

This plant was abundant around the spring below the village. The Havasupai had seen this plant many times, but they did not have a fixed name for it, nor did they use it in any way. The name listed here is only one of the many combinations given; it means “grape relative.”

Confused with maidenhair fern (Adiantum capillus-veneris).

FAMILY BERBERIDACEAE

An occasional shrub was found in the pinyon-juniper areas. The yellow root made an excellent yellow dye. A Walapai woman married to a Havasupai decorated baskets with this dye, but the Havasupai used it only as a buckskin dye.

This low, creeping plant was found along the south rim of the Grand Canyon, especially at Grand View. The roots were used for medicine. P. B. said that the roots were stored until needed, at which time they were boiled for two or three hours. The liquid was allowed to cool and was drunk three times a day for stomach upsets and headache. M.M. said it was good for colds and stomach ailments, acting as a laxative. M.T. said that it was good for a sick baby as well as an adult. For children the root was peeled and boiled, and the resulting liquid was strained and diluted to half strength with water. It was given four times a day before feeding, about a teaspoonful at a time. The adult dose was half a cup. Colds or aches were helped by rubbing the body all over with a rag dipped in the liquid. Coyote was a medicine man, and mythology tells how he used this medicine (B.B.). The name of the plant kathad’iisma’a means “coyote medicine.”

FAMILY CRUCIFERAE

It was found growing in the vicinity of Grand Canyon Village. The Havasupai sometimes confused it with other plants.

These little plants were common throughout the study area. Several species (D. obtusa, D. pinnata, D. sophia) were represented in the collections. These species were not differentiated by the Havasupai. Tansy mustard was a well-known and important source of wild seeds. The seeds, which ripened for the most part early in the spring or summer, were knocked into a carrying basket. As many as two full sacks could be obtained in a day (M.T.). Although the seeds were very small, they were parched on a tray and ground on a grinding stone. See Chapter 4 for the various ways these seeds were prepared as food.

This was a mustard-like plant with round seed pods. Seeds which almost certainly belonged to this genus were obtained from M.M.; yet repeated questioning with specimens of this species and of L. montanum resulted in conflicting data. Obviously, one or more species were known by this name. The descriptions of this plant indicated that it ripened in July in the valley and somewhat later on the Plateau. It was prepared in a variety of ways.

Watercress was introduced about 1910 (P.B.), and by 1941 it was growing abundantly in the village along Cataract Creek. The Havasupai were just beginning to eat it in 1941. It had no established native name.

Desert plume grew along the canyon walls, particularly in the vicinity of the village, and was the source of one of the best-known wild foods. The young leaves were collected early in the spring before the flowers appeared. I.U. and E.U. specified that the plant must be cut, for if it was pulled out by the roots it would not grow again. When desert plume grew in seleniferous soils it developed a poison (Kearney and Peebles 1942). The Havasupai, Hopi, and Navajo all knew that this plant could not be eaten raw (M.T., P. B.). It had to be boiled in water (the water was thrown away), and then either washed or boiled two or three more times before it was safe to eat. I.U. said that if it was cooked outdoors where it was windy it would taste bitter.

Both species were found on the south rim of the Grand Canyon. M.T. said it was used in the same way as peppergrass (Lepidium). The name means “large peppergrass.”

FAMILY CAPPARIDACEAE

Occasionally found in the canyons of the study area. It was not consistently nor widely recognized among the Havasupai. P.B., M.M., and others thought that the seeds were eaten.

FAMILY SAXIFRAGACEAE

Occasionally found along the rim of the canyon. The wood was very hard and tough—ideal for arrow foreshafts. Short pieces of saxifrage (a few inches in length) were collected green. The wood was heated in the ashes and straightened. Heating also softened the wood sufficiently so that it could be inserted into the hollow end of the reed arrowshaft (E.U.). It might be necessary to bind it on with sinew (P.B.). The point of this foreshaft was sharpened with a knife or by rubbing on a stone and was resharpened when the point became dull (E.U.).

This plant was occasionally found on the Plateau and was not differentiated by the Havasupai from R. inebrians, with which it intergrades. The stems, used for wooden arrows (P.B., M.T.), were gathered in November when the wood was hard. A section about two and a half feet long was selected, and feathers were attached to one end. The other end was split and a stone or metal point was inserted and bound into position with deer sinew (P.B.). These arrows were used in war or in hunting large game, such as deer or mountain sheep. The berries were not eaten (P.B., M.T.). The name often given was ‘ici- hwanyi-mo-va-le (’icihwan- means “those who feel like fighting”).

FAMILY ROSACEAE

This was a small tree found occasionally on the canyon rim. Possibly other species were to be included under the Havasupai name.

The wood was particularly hard and durable, and was sought after by basket makers for the rims of their carrying baskets (E.U., P. B..) and flat parching trays, and for construction of cradleboards (E.U.). The wood was collected green, heated in hot ashes, and bent and lashed in the desired shape; when it cooled it retained this modified shape (E.U.).

The long, straight stems made good arrows (P.B. and others). The heavy, wooden game arrow was made from a straight stem, about three feet long, cleaned of bark and side branches. Feathers were attached to one end; the other end was split for about an inch, and an arrowhead was inserted and bound in place with deer sinew (P.B.). M.T. said that the spindle of the fire drill might be made of this wood.

Deer were seen eating the serviceberry fruit, but the Havasupai did not eat it (P.B.).

This was occasionally on the rocky points along the rims of the Grand Canyon, such as at Grand View Point. Other plant species may have been called by the same name. The red inner bark was made into a buckskin dye (P.B., Mrs. B.J.). When the wood was dry, the bark was removed with a knife, and a pound (or two) was boiled in water for two hours. When it cooled, the liquid was brushed onto the buckskin and worked into the surface with a brush (P.B.). The name means “red wood.”

It was occasionally found on the Plateau. The name means “wild currant-relative.”

This was a low shrub covering large areas on the Tonto Platform in the Grand Canyon. It was widely recognized among the Havasupai as a good feed for stock in the absence of grass.

Cliff-rose was found at the higher altitudes of the Plateau, particularly along the rims of the Grand Canyon. It had a fine, soft bark (often confused with that of the juniper) which was used as tinder for the fire drill. It was also crushed and rubbed to make it soft and then stuffed into overshoes to maintain warmth. An infant’s cradleboard was often surrounded with a thick layer of this soft bark, and it served as an absorbent diaper for children. Sleeping mats, described in detail by Spier (1928), were made from loosely twisted ropes of this bark (P.B., E.U.).

The green branches were boiled together with other plants, including sagebrush and juniper, and used as a cure for colds. The mixture loosened the mucus and acted as a laxative.

The meaning of the Havasupai name for this plant was “growing with several branches.”

It was abundant on the canyon walls and on the Plateau. Apache plume was often used for the top ring of baskets (E.U., Mrs. B.J., M.T.) and for the ladderback rungs of the cradleboards (P.B.).

By 1941 apples were frequently raised in the village. They appeared to be of relatively recent introduction, for they were not mentioned in any of the early accounts. The Havasupai name was derived from the English word for this fruit.

E.U. said that his father planted the one tree in the village. The name means “cultivated walnuts.”

Apricots were not mentioned by Garcés in 1776 but were listed in Cushing’s (1882) report and in Coues’s (1900) report. The trees were obtained through the Indian Agency or from mail-order houses. The name was from the Havasupai words thipala peach and hai’iku’u white man.

Although Garcés did not mention peaches in his 1776 diary, they were mentioned by Hodge in 1877. Since the Havasupai name (thipala) is derived from the Hopi word (sipala peach), it is probable that the Havasupai learned about peaches from the Hopi.

Many of the trees growing in the village in 1941 had been inherited from the previous generations, and new stock was being added from mail-order catalogues. The government agent had been active in helping the Havasupai obtain good peach stock for many years (Arizona Graphic 1899). At one time they grew more fruit than they could consume, and considerable amounts were traded to other tribes or sold to neighboring ranchers and miners (James 1912). A great many trees had been lost in the flood of 1910. Little, if any, of the peach crop was sold outside Cataract Canyon in 1941.

Peaches were sometimes eaten green because of the demand for fresh fruit (Spier 1928), although large quantities were split open with the fingers, pitted, and dried in the sun for later consumption. To prepare the dried fruits one pounded them a bit and stewed them in water for half an hour; then the water was drunk (Mrs. B.J.). This method of preparation was observed by Cushing in 1881 (Spier 1928).

Peaches were an important part of the Havasupai diet during the months of July and August. In late August or early September, the annual circle dance and feast was held. This was known in English as the “Peach Dance,” though it apparently had no corresponding native term with similar meaning.

Peach trees were personal property even when planted on land belonging to another person. Formerly, when a dead person was cremated, his peach trees were burned or destroyed along with his other personal property.

Several varieties of peaches were recognized by the Havasupai.

The following is a list of those varieties with their native names:

A few of these trees had been obtained from outside sources by 1941. The word thona’-thona’ means “to be wrinkled, dry”; the tree also went by the name kwe-’inya’-thona’thona’.

The cherries reported by Hoover in 1929 might be of hybrid origin (for example, P. avium with P. cerasus).

A few of these trees had been obtained from Anglo-Americans by 1941. Pear also went by the name kwelakatova, which means “large, hooked things.”

FAMILY LEGUMINOSAE

An occasional tree was found growing in the dry canyon bottoms, on the tallus slopes near the village, and in the upper reaches of Cataract Canyon. Catclaw, an important source of strong basketry material, was considered superior for twined basketry. The twigs were stripped of leaves and thorns by running them through the hand, protected by a piece of cloth or canvas. They were roughly sorted and the butt ends trimmed off to lengths of two and three feet. The shorter butts were mashed soft between two stones. The longer twigs, used for warp, were split in three—beginning at the tip—using the teeth and hands. Only the two outside strips were used; the inside one was discarded. The strips were scraped to a uniform thickness by drawing them a few times across a knife. The twigs were collected green in July or August. If stored, they had to be soaked for two or three days before they could be used (Spier 1928).

When the fruits were ripe in the fall they were collected and spread on a blanket. They were then beaten with a stick to free the seeds from the pods. The seeds were collected and half or more of them stored in a skin sack or blanket bag. When the seeds were to be used, they were roasted in a parching tray, ground on a grinding stone and made into bread. M.M. used a brush made of catclaw twigs to brush off metates.

Several species of Astragalus were found growing in the Havasupai range; some of them were poisonous (Kearney and Peebles 1942). There was no consistent recognition or terminology for this species. Several informants considered the seeds edible.

A few trees grew near the springs along the canyon trail above the village. Most informants denied that they were used for anything. B.B. said the wood was used for bows. E.U. said handles for tools were made from it and it might be used for fence posts. Considering the limited supply of material, it could not have been an important resource.

Cushing (1882) said that the Havasupai used a blue face paint derived from the root of the wild indigo. Willey (1912) said that they decorated their baskets with this blue paint. The Havasupai may once have obtained native indigo from Mexico, possibly through the Hopi.

M.T. applied this name to this species. This, or some related form, was apparently used for food. The data were inadequate.

The tendency of the Havasupai language to reduplicate syllables was strongly highlighted in the way they modified the name of this introduced plant. Sometimes the term iwila, normally applied to practically any growing plant, was used specifically for alfalfa, which was raised only to a limited extent in the valley.

The sweet clovers were introduced plants. The leaves were dried, ground up, placed in a small bundle, and tied onto clothes (women only) for a perfume (M.T.).

Not distinguished from the kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris).

Limas were used much as kidney beans were. The name means “very flat bean.”

The Havasupai did not have as many varieties of beans as the Hopi. Garcés in 1776 was fed beans (Coues 1900). The Havasupai apparently received seeds from their neighbors in all directions—the Mohave, Walapai, and Hopi.

Beans were often planted in the same fields and at the same time as corn; they also ripened at the same time as corn. Beans were shelled by rubbing them between the hands over a parching tray. The material was placed in a basket and tossed in the air in order to winnow out the debris and leave the heavier beans in the basket. Beans were stored for later use in granaries or in the frame houses.

Like most seeds, beans were parched, ground, and added to hot water to make a soup or mush, called madiiktava ground beans. This soup might also contain ground corn. Beans were also cooked with fresh corn cut from the cob. Another way of cooking them was in hot ashes under a fire. In 1941 they were usually boiled.

The following is a list of several varieties of beans distinguished by the Havasupai:

A few Havasupai families cultivated peas in 1941.

Mesquite was occasionally found in the vicinity of the village, although there were not sufficient numbers of mesquite trees to provide any great quantity of food. The beans ripened in late September and October.

The branches were not used in basketry, although the base frame of the cradleboard was made of mesquite. The wood was used occasionally for firewood, but the supply was very limited. The spindle of the fire drill was often made of dried mesquite root (Spier (1928).

The mesquite pod was sometimes eaten raw like a stick of candy. For cooked food usages, see Chapter 4.

This introduced species was occasionally grown. Because the “eye” of this bean was likened to the black mask on the eye of the Quail, they named it “quail bean.” Seeds were obtained from M.M.

FAMILY GERANIACEAE

This was an introduced plant with sharp, pointed fruit that was said to look like a mosquito (huuvaka); besides, “it sticks you” (M.T., B.B.).

M.T. said the Navajo use it for medicine and that it grows by a spring (hapak). This statement opens up questions, since this plant does not necessarily grow next to springs.

FAMILY ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

This bush, which grows only in the lower deserts, was the habitat of a lac-producing insect. The lac was formerly an important element in native trade. Although the Havasupai themselves no longer collected it in 1941, they obtained it in trade from the Mohave and, in turn, traded it to the Hopi. A chunk of lac, two or three inches in diameter, could be traded for a blanket. The Havasupai used lac to attach arrowpoints (B.B.)

This was an introduced weed with hard, sharp-pointed fruits. This weed had a number of names: ‘iwila’-qwava (from ’iwila weed and qwa- horn); ’iwila’atata (from -tata spine); waksiqwa’a (from waksi’i cow and qwa’a horn).

FAMILY RUTACEAE

An occasional tree of this species was found in the side canyons. It was used for firewood, though the supply was limited.

The leaves, which had a strong odor, were pounded up together with jimson weed (Datura), scorpions, and other noxious items. The mixture was then applied to the tips of arrows for use in hunting large game and in warfare. It was said that even a slight scratch from an arrow so treated would insure death (B.B. and others).

As a medicine, the leaves were boiled in water and the resulting liquid rubbed on a child’s abdomen to cure stomachache (D.I.). Mrs. B.J. reported that it was once tried as a medicine in the sweatbath, but that it caused the bather’s cheeks to swell and was, therefore, declared a failure. The name means “deer stomach.”

This was a common, little, bushy plant, with a very strong odor, that was used for medicine. The leaves were pounded and then rubbed onto a hurting abdomen (B.B.). M.M. said that the plant could be soaked in cool water; others (E.U. and others) said that it should be boiled for a few minutes. The resulting liquid was very bitter, but the patient must drink a cupful one to three times during a day. This would cause vomiting (M.M.) or act as a laxative “within two hours” (E.U). The name means “woodrat stomach.”

FAMILY ANACARDIACEAE

This was a common shrub found along the rims of the Grand Canyon.

The stems were an important basketry material. The best results were obtained by waiting until late fall to collect the current year’s growth (E.U. and others). Basketry made of green wood was not strong and was inclined to warp. Only the long, straight stems were collected. They were preferred to cottonwood because they stayed white, whereas cottonwood stems turned brown with age (Mrs. B.J.). Squawbush was also the preferred material for the binder of coiled basketry, and was not infrequently used for the manufacture of twined baskets.

The red berries were collected in July or August in a carrying basket. They were crushed on the grinding stone and allowed to soak in a little water; then they were ground again, and more water was added (M.T. and others). The resulting liquid was used as a drink. Some people preferred to add sugar to the liquid, and the sweetened drink was often referred to as “lemonade.” For storage, the berries were dried in the sun and kept in sacks. To prepare the dried berries, a person pounded them up on the grinding stone and soaked them in water for half an hour (E.U. and others). More cold water was then added to make a drink. Ida insisted that the liquid be strained, but this seemed to be an unusual refinement that was not ordinarily practiced. B.B. said he added mescal to sweeten the drink (use of mescal probably preceded the use of sugar).

FAMILY CELASTRACEAE

A clump of these small trees, with numerous spinelike, leafless branches, was found growing in the canyon near the village. The Havasupai name was widely known, but the material was not used in any way.

An occasional plant of this species was found in Cataract Canyon. It was a small shrub with very tough wood and small, white flowers. B. B. and P. B. said that it grew on the Esplanade. It was used to make the wooden foreshaft on the reed arrow, frequently without any additional point.

FAMILY RHAMNACEAE

Buck thorn was occasionally found along the upper part of the Walapai Trail. It was not consistently recognized by the Havasupai informants.

This thorny bush was found forming dense thickets in the village. The name means “woodspine.”

FAMILY VITACEAE

This plant was found growing over rocks and shrubs near the springs by the village. The hoop of the hoop-and-pole game was sometimes made from grape vines (D.I.). The fruit was known to be edible.

A few families cultivated grape vines.

This was found growing on the walls and fences beside the government buildings.

FAMILY MALVACEAE

The Havasupai occasionally obtained cottonseed from the Hopi so they could raise a few plants for use in the strike-a-light. When the cotton was picked, the seeds were removed and the cotton spread out on a blanket. The cotton was not spun but was twisted into thread with the fingers (M.T.). The thread was braided into a thick cord, hecawa’sinava (“cotton, twisted”), which was then threaded into a hollow bone tube made from the femur of a wildcat. The spark from the strike-a-light was caught on the slightly protruding end of the cord. Once the fire was lit, the cord was pulled back into the tube (B.B.). Cotton goods (called hecawa in 1941) were obtained from the Hopi in trade.

Several species—including S. fendleri, S. grossulariaefolia, and and S. parvifolia—were all collected within the Havasupai range. They were not differentiated by the Havasupai. If a person handled one of these plants and then touched his face, itching and even sores resulted (E.I., D.I., M.T., B.B.).

It was said that the juice of the globe mallow was made into a paste which was mixed with clay before it was molded into a pot (S.J). Juice of this plant appears to have been only one of several ingredients within this paste (Spier 1928).

FAMILY TAMARICACEAE

A single specimen of this introduced species had been brought down to the village by 1941.^*

FAMILY LOASACEAE

This was a low-growing plant with small yellow flowers. The leaves stuck tenaciously to clothing. It is possible that several species were included under this native name. Formerly a very important food plant, blazing star was found in open glades on the Plateau. A special, basketry beater, sile’aovuk, was used to knock the seeds into a small carrying basket held in the left hand. As this basket filled it was dumped over the shoulder into a large burden basket carried on the back (M.T.). The Havasupai name means “sandy.”

FAMILY CACTACEAE

The name means “wind testicles.”

This name was probably applied to several species that were described as big, tall, barrel cacti growing on the Plateau. Pieces of the plant were used as a tray for baked mescal. The spines were burned off and the body of the cactus was cut into slices with an axe. These were spread out on the ground and the cooked mescal was placed on top of them (E.U).

A cooking vessel, multatkwetalomia, was sometimes improvised from these large cacti. This practice occurred particularly on hunting expeditions, though it might also have occasionally been done at home.

The spines on some of these cacti were quite wide and red. These were removed, warmed at the fire, and bent into finger rings (B.B., P.B.). Cushing (1882) saw numerous finger rings of bright red cactus thorns worn in great numbers by the women. He also mentioned earrings of beaded cactus thorns (Cushing 1882).

The seeds, which were ripe in July, were used either fresh or dried. They were parched and ground to make mush (Mrs. B. J.). The name means “sometimes spine.”

The Havasupai term included several species, which were found in Cataract Canyon and at lower portions of the Plateau.

The body of the cactus was used as a target in archery practice (Spier 1928).

The fruit, called hate’e, ripened in August and September, and was removed from the plant with tongs made of Salix exigua (P.B.). To remove the fine spines, the fruits were rolled on the ground and brushed with a handful of Mormon tea or any other weed which was handy (P.B.). They were finally rubbed with a rag (Spier 1928) and placed in a burden basket to be carried home to camp. In camp, they were either eaten fresh or split in half and, after the seeds were removed, allowed to dry in the sun for a day (P.B., Mrs. B.J., and others). The dried fruit might be pounded into a cake for storage; pieces of this cake were eaten directly without further preparation (Mrs. B.J). Prickly pear fruit was one of the few sweet foods eaten before the coming of commercial sugar. Unlike mescal, this fruit was not used as seasoning with other foods (Mrs. B.J.).

Alava was mentioned by S.J. as one of the plants used in preparing pottery clay.

Tatooing was accomplished by pricking the design into the skin with cactus spines moistened and dipped into ground charcoal. P. B.said spines of this cactus were best, since they were the sharpest ones that could be found.

This name applied to any cholla cactus, although it typically referred to a large form, with branches resembling deer horns. The Havasupai recognized the spines of these cacti as being unusually difficult to remove (P.B., E.U., B. B.). This was due to a thin sheath that covered the spine and remained in the flesh after the spine itself had been removed. The cholla was one of the plants from which the liquid was used to mix with pottery clay (S.J., B.B.). B.B. said this liquid was boiled.

An area in which this plant was found growing, the upper section of Cataract Canyon, was known as taqwiisqliyanya (P.B.).

Descriptions of this plant indicate that it was either a short, stocky cholla (Opuntia spp.) or some form of an elongated barrel cactus. M.T. said it was about a foot tall, as big as her forearm, and had red flowers. Descriptions of this kind were not found to be particularly accurate. M.M. said it was small, like a barrel cactus, in contrast to the prickly pear.

M.M. described how it was used in pottery making. The spines were burned off and the “skin” peeled away. The sticky interior was then rubbed over the molded, but unfired, pot. M.T., however, said to break the cactus open, cut the inside into small pieces, put these into water, and work (squeeze) them with the fingers. This liquid was rubbed all over the pot. The first part of the name derives from akwatha “yellow.”

FAMILY ELAEAGNACEAE

The plant was occasionally found near the head of the Grand Canyon trail leading from the south rim to the village.

Informants did not consistently name this shrub, though they all seemed to recognize it. When the plant was hit or otherwise disturbed, a cloud of the fine dust rose from the underside of the leaves. If this dust got into the eyes it was said to make the eyes sore and to even cause blindness (M.T., B. B., P.B., M.M. and others).

FAMILY UMBELLIFERAE

The familiar Old World celery was introduced and by 1941 was found growing wild below the village. The Havasupai had no name for it and apparently did not eat it or use it in any way.

FAMILY CORNACEAE

This large evergreen shrub was occasionally found on the Plateau. P.B. said that whistles were made from the straight, thick stocks. There was a feeling that disturbing this plant would bring rain.

Specimens of this species were not consistently recognized, though it was found growing in Cataract Canyon near the village and along the trails.

This plant grew in the vicinity of the village. The wood was used for handles of various tools—such as hoes or axes (B.B., E.U.)—for fuel, and for house and fence construction (B.B., E.U., Mrs. B.J., M.M.). The hoop for the hoop-and-pole game and the oval frame for the cradleboard might also be made of this wood. Tongs, sataav, for handling hot or prickly objects were made from a green branch of this plant: the branch was flattened on one side, notched in the middle, and then bent double and bound until it was dry (Spier 1928).

It was best known among the Havasupai as the material from which bows were made (B.B., E.U., P.B., D.I. and others). A young tree was selected and its branches trimmed close so that the plant would grow straight. After two or three years, the tree was cut (E.U., and Spier 1928). No information could be obtained from the informants as to ownership of these trees, though the supply was obviously limited.

A spring near the village was named kapu’kiyo’o because of a group of these trees which grew nearby. The Havasupai name can be broken down to the following: probably from ka-hapu’u, (ka he who has and hapu’u bow).

FAMILY GENTIANACEAE

It was a tall plant that grew in the pine country. It had large deep roots with medicinal properties. Before it could be dug, the Havasupai had to make a speech to the plant telling it what a good medicine it was and that help was needed. The entire root was boiled for five minutes and the resulting liquid cooled by adding cold water. A drink of this was taken in the morning and again before going to bed at night as a remedy for digestive upsets, colds, and similar troubles. It might be given by a medicine man. When taken in conjunction with a sweat bath, it was good for gonorrhea. The medicine was said to have been used originally by Wolf, hence it was Wolf’s medicine. The name is from hatakwila wolf and iisma’a medicine.

FAMILY APOCYNACEAE

This species was collected near the village and on the rim of Cataract Canyon.

The stems, collected in winter when the plant was dry and the leaves had fallen, were pounded to loosen the bark. The bark was not broken down but used as a unit: strips were braided and worn as a belt, which might be prepared as needed in the field (Mrs. B.J.). Some informants denied this usage (E.U., B.B., P.B. and others) or attributed it to the Mohave (M.T.).

The green stem exudes a white, milky substance when broken. E.U. said that when he was young, children would try to get this “milk” on their playmates’ faces; if successfully applied, it made the victim’s eyelids stick together.

The stems were also used occasionally for thatch on the houses (P.B., Mrs. B.J., E.U., M.T., D.I. and others).

FAMILY ASCLEPIADACEAE

An occasional climbing vine was found growing near the village. Children removed the leaves and twisted the stocks into a rope used in play (P.B. and others).

FAMILY CONVOLVULACEAE

An introduced weed occasionally seen on the Plateau. It was recognized but not named (P.B., E.U., M.T.).

This twining, parasitic plant was occasionally seen in the village, particularly on alfalfa.

Sweet potatoes were a crop which by 1941 had been introduced with some success. A plot under the direct supervision of the Indian Subagent served the dual purpose of providing potatoes for the school and demonstrating the method of their cultivation to the residents of the village. The name recorded here was given by D.I., but it may not have had wide acceptance. It was a literal translation of the English word “potato” (paapa) and the Spanish word for “sweet” (miyula).

The scarlet flowers of this plant, which belongs to the same genus as the morning glory, were narrowly trumpet shaped. The vine was occasionally found near the village and was recognized by some informants, but not named.

FAMILY POLEMONIACEAE

This inconspicuous plant was found growing on the Plateau. The seeds were collected, parched on a tray, and ground. After being dampened with a little water, the ground seeds were worked with the hands into the consistency of peanut butter. According to M.B. and B. B., sometimes this substance would be mixed with sile’e (Mentzelia). Information on this species was not completely satisfactory. The Havasupai name probably included G.tenuiflora, which was also found in this area.

This bright, red-flowered plant was abundant on the Plateau.

It was recognized as being different from two other similar forms, Indian Paint Brush (Castellija spp.) and scarlet bugler (Red-flowered Pentstemon spp.), which were given the same native name and were avoided in the same manner. When specimens were offered to children in his presence, one man prevented the children from handling it. In the Havasupai name, ’iluwi’i means “rattlesnake,” and ci’uuta means “downy feather.”

Specimens of two forms, P. austromontana and P. longifolia, were collected on the South Rim near Grand Canyon Village, though plants also occur elsewhere within the Havasupai range. M.B. and her daughter said that phlox was used as medicine for stomachache (the daughter was giving it to her baby at the time). The root was pounded on a rock, boiled for five or ten minutes, and the liquid was allowed to cool. An average dose was half a cup. For colds or aches, the liquid might also be rubbed over all the body, in the same fashion as Oregon-grape (Berberis repens), which had the same Havasupai name. Part of the name, smaka, means “to sleep.”

FAMILY VERBENACEAE

This occasionally found shrub with aromatic foliage was observed in Cataract Canyon, above the village, and was used for tea (Mrs. B.J., M.T., B.B. and others). A handful of leaves was put into boiling water and allowed to boil for a minute. This drink was preferred to Mormon tea as a substitute for commercial tea or coffee. Spier (1928) said that it was boiled and taken copiously for slight distempers, rheumatism, and headaches.

FAMILY LABIATAE

This introduced herb was common near the village. Many of the informants recognized it, but there was no established name for it.

This plant was rare but could be found on talus slopes in the village. It was not differentiated from Penstemon barbatus, which it resembled (B.B.).

FAMILY SOLONACEAE

Listed by James (1903) as one of the Havasupai crops. It was not being grown in 1941.

This plant, which had gray leaves and large, lily-like flowers, was found near the village.

A few leaves or a couple of seeds, if eaten, would make a person intoxicated for a day or more (Spier 1928, E.U, P.B., D.I., B.B. and others). When a person ate jimson weed, his throat would become dry and the victim would do strange things, such as hoeing up corn or bumping into objects (E.U.). The person under this influence had dreams, such as being in a crowd of people who play and dance, or being in the company of a girl who disappears when you grab her (E.U.). The older people strongly opposed use of jimson weed, although the tales told about it were enough to make any adventurous young man want to try it once.

Datura was listed by Spier (1928) as one ingredient of arrow poison. The plant could also be used medicinally: a leaf was roughly folded several times and rubbed on the surface of the skin where a person had been bitten by a red ant (D.I., E.U.).

The pronunciation of the Havasupai name was very fast; the English meaning is “it caused ringing in the ears,” or “deaf.”

This stiff, spiny shrub with red berries was occasionally found on the Plateau and in the canyon. The berries were gathered in a carrying basket and then spread on a blanket to dry in the sun. Once dry, they were ground and put into water to make a drink (M.T., B.B.). The Havasupai name and usage probably included L. andersonii, a similar species found in the canyon. The name means “wood seeds.”

Although this plant had no native name, it was being cultivated in 1941.

This species of tobacco was found growing on the Plateau and in Cataract Canyon in areas which had been cleared of other vegetation. It was to be looked for near tanks and water holes and in areas which had been burned over (B.B., E.U.). Apparently, if there was no tobacco available under normal conditions, fires were set and tobacco seed distributed in the ashes by the Indians themselves (Spier 1928). This species was smoked by the Havasupai for pleasure; there was no indication that it was used ceremonially.

This species of tobacco was common along the talus slopes near the village and in places on the Plateau. Apparently, this plant, too, was smoked in aboriginal times, though the preceding species was preferred. This variety, known as Coyote’s tobacco, was said to have been what resulted when Coyote tried to make regular tobacco. Spier (1928) says this was the variety which Coyote grew for his own use. B. B. said Coyote tried to smoke this.

This climbing vine, found near the village, was recognized but not named. The berries were too bitter to be eaten (M.M., P. B., E.U., D.I., B. B.).

FAMILY SCROPHULARIACEAE

These several species, together with Ipomopsis aggregata and Salvia davidsonii, all have bright red flowers and were all known by the same Havasupai name.

When Rattlesnake was a man, he wore a downy red feather in his hair, which is now represented by these flowers. The flowers should not be handled, especially by children, lest Snake bite them.

The name can be broken down to the following: ‘iluwi’i, meaning “rattlesnake,” and ci’uuta, meaning “downy feather.”

This plant had a large, showy, pink flower and was found along the Walapai trail. The name presented here was given by only one informant, D.I.

This blue-flowered species was occasionally found on the Plateau. M.T. said that a deer hunter would often fold the leaf lengthwise and place it in his mouth with the folded edge out. By sharply drawing his breath in, the hunter could produce a sound like that of a baby deer. The name was given only by M.T., and she did not repeat the name when the same species was seen later. The name means “turkey eat.”

FAMILY BIGNONIACEAE

Large stands of this shrub were found growing along the river above the village. The smaller branches were collected in the spring or summer. The bark was removed and the unsplit wood was used as rod foundations in coil basketry (P.B., E.U., I.U., and others). P. B. said the wood was too brittle to be used for the binding.

FAMILY MARTYNIACEAE

Two varieties of devil’s claw occurred in the canyon. One, which had short spines and black seeds, was found growing wild in the fields and waste places near the village. Specimens of this plant were identified as P. parviflora. This form might have been cultivated, though it was usually collected from plants seeding themselves in the vicinity of the fields. The seedlings were recognized and were often allowed to grow in the gardens where other plants would be weeded out (D.I.).

The second variety had longer spines on the pod and white seeds. This second variety was usually planted by the women at the same time as corn, but harvested only when the fields had dried out (E.U.). The fruits were removed and dried in the sun. Seeds were edible and were sometimes eaten. The spines were broken off near the base and stored for future use, most often as decorative elements in basketry.

The origin of this cultivated type has been debated. Spier (1928) attributed it to a Walapai woman who married a Havasupai and then obtained it from her sister, who had obtained it from the Paiute. E.U. remembered that this woman planted a field of devil’s claw and sold a superior product. Mrs. B.J. claimed to have introduced this form from the Mohave herself. B. B. thought that it had been obtained long ago from the Hopi. E.U. suggested the Yavapai. All these explanations were possibilities.^*

The long-spined form was known as halaakakiyula (kiyula long), while the short-spined form was known as halaakata’uutika (kata’uutika ball).

FAMILY OROBANCHACEAE

M.T. applied this name to three different plants all collected on the Plateau: O. cooperi, O. fasciculata, and O. multiflora arenosa. B.B. did not recognize O. multiflora arenosa. The Havasupai name means “antelope eat.”

FAMILY PLANTAGINACEAE

P. B. said that in July the seeds of this abundant but inconspicuous little weed were knocked into a basket with a stick. They were then ground and made into mush. Other informants gave a variety of similar names but denied the use (D.I., B.B., M.M., E.U., and others). The name means “white balls.”

This introduced species resembled the important food species Rumex (Spier 1928). There was no Havasupai name for this species.

FAMILY CAPRIFOLIACEAE

This name also applied, perhaps erroneously, to Garrya flavescens. It was said that flutes were made of taltale, but M.T., viewing the plant, said that whistles were not made of this material but of temeya’a and qlisakepal, both unidentified plants.

This low shrub was found in the higher portions of the Plateau near Grand Canyon. The stems were used to make the rim of the shade for the cradleboard (M.T., P. B.). The name which applied to this species also applied to Bouteloua spp.

FAMILY CUCURBITACEAE

The Havasupai had grown watermelons for many years prior to 1941. The records were not clear, because reference was often made to “all kinds of melons,” but James (1903) specifically mentioned them around the turn of the century. Carefully selected seeds were stored in cloth bundles in little, stone storage chambers under the cliffs (Spier 1928). Seeds which were not wanted for future planting were parched and ground to make sumkwin and other dishes (S.J.). Several of the varieties recognized by the Havasupai were:

Melons were mentioned by most observers, beginning with an account in The Miner (1880). Some of these reports may refer to watermelons, although it is unclear which melons they actually meant. The Havasupai name was derived from the English “melon” or the Spanish ”melón,” perhaps as a result of contact with the Hopi, who used a similar term (Whiting 1939). Cushing (1882) said that in 1881 melons were dried for storage and were stewed when wanted for food. This practice was similar to the Hopi usage.

This plant was occasionally found in waste places in the inhabited portion of Cataract Canyon.

Girls were experts at juggling the ball-like fruits (M.M.); boys played with the fruit, but as a rule they did not juggle (Spier 1928).

A wooden ball, made from the root of this plant, was used in playing the “four hills” game. Spier (1928) gave an excellent description of this game. He said that the ball was cut from yucca root, but this may be an error, as several informants insisted that the root was from this wild gourd (D.I., E.U., M.M., and others). The ball, called kata’uutika (D.I.), was not painted (E.U.).

Two types of squash were no longer common in 1941: the earlier type was apparently the striped cushaw, a large heavy squash with a crook neck and light, vertical stripes on the body; a similar squash with a round body was also described as being an old type. Two other types were not seen growing at all in 1941: one of these was said to have a woody texture and, hence, was called hmtei’i; another was said to be gray or cream colored and was called hmte’thavakita’uutika.

Other types were known and raised. Squash was planted four to five inches deep, with four seeds to a hole (Spier 1928), in the same fields with corn. The corn often ripened and dried up prior to the ripening of the squash and pumpkins (E.U.). Seeds not wanted for future planting were dried, parched, shelled, and eaten. They were sometimes ground to form a paste or mixed with corn in a mush (M.M.). See Chapter 4 for further discussion of preparation and use as food.

A four- to five-inch hole was cut in the top of the squash, and the shell was carefully hollowed out and dried in the sun. These squash-or pumpkin-shell vessels were filled with seeds, beans, etc., and hidden where enemy raiders could not find them (S.J., M.M.). Seeds were carefully selected for the following year’s crop and stored away in cloth sacks (Spier 1928) or in these shell containers.

Squash vines were attacked by a worm about half an inch long called hmte’kitepuuya (Euschistus, stink bug).

These gourds should not be confused with the little, wild gourds (Cucurbita foetidissima) or pumpkins described above. The Havasupai appear to have been dependent upon the Hopi for their supply of gourds or, at least, of gourd seeds. In 1941 only one or two medicine men raised them, and they had obtained the seeds from the Hopi.

Rattles were often made from this gourd. Unlike Hopi rattles, Havasupai rattles were punctured with small holes in particular patterns. Spier (1928) said that only shamans knew the significance of these patterns, but that they were not the star patterns used by Navajo. The rattling elements were stones (D.I. and others). The rattles had a wooden handle which protruded through the far side of the gourd, with the inner surface resting upon a collar. A thong wound around the protruding portion of the shaft kept the gourd from slipping off.

Large, hourglass-shaped gourds were formerly used for carrying water on foot or on horseback trips away from home (E.U.). Spier (1928) said that, when walking, a man would carry such a container bound to the middle of his back. The container was held in place by a rope tied around the man’s waist and the constricted portion of the gourd. Larger-bodied forms were infrequently used as water storage vessels. The end of the elongated neck was cut off square and had a stopper made of grass, crushed cedarbark, corncob, or the cutoff portion of the gourd itself (Spier 1928).

FAMILY COMPOSITAE

This was occasionally found on the Plateau. M.T. said the name meant “relative of cousin.”

Wormwood,

This was found growing in the vicinity of the village. Sprays of this shrub were used in the sweatbath, where it served as a substitute for A. tridentata. It was said to have beneficial effects in case of sickness (M.T, P. B.), and P. B. said it could be used like tea. For tea, a handful of leaves was boiled for ten or fifteen minutes in a coffeepot. Spier (1928) said that a ring of this species was put around a persons limb to draw out the poison of a snake bite. This plant’s name also applies to Eriogonum microthecum.

Plants of this species were occasionally found on the Plateau. M.T. described collecting seeds of this plant and of A. carruthii. She said to take off the top of the stalk and rub the seeds between the hands over a carrying basket. In this way half a sack of seeds might be collected. The plants were hard to find; nevertheless, they were used extensively in the old days. After the seeds were prepared by parching, they were ground, moistened with a little water, and worked into a sticky dough, which was eaten with mescal.

The name can be broken down into three Havasupai words: ’inyaa’a sun, -nyi- his, and apa’a arrow.

This plant, an evergreen shrub, could be found in large stands over much of the Plateau. It was used frequently as medicine, particularly for a runny nose, cough, or intestinal upset. There was considerable variation in this use. Leafy stems were placed on the fire (coals), and the resulting fumes were inhaled for a cold or runny nose (E.U.). The fresh leaves were chewed for a cough (E.U. and others). More often, it was pounded a bit, boiled in water for ten to fifteen minutes (M.M.) or twenty minutes (I.U.), and then cooled and drunk. The usual dose, a cupful, was taken before breakfast and again after supper. This treatment was continued until the cold was gone, usually in two or three days (I.U.). Another method was to take two tablespoonfuls every half hour for one day (M.M.). This method was good for a cold (I.U., M.M., M.T., P.B., E.U), cough (B.B.), sore throat (M.T.), or stomachache. The liquid was also used as a wash for sores or pimples (M.T.).

The shrub was often used for fuel (Spier 1928). The bark was used as a plug to keep water from spilling out of a water jug (E.U). This plant was the most abundant material available for thatch on the Plateau.

This tall, willow-like bush formed dense stands along the river and was important in controlling erosion. This was probably the tree Cushing (1882) had in mind when he called the Havasupai “the nation of the willows.” The male and female flowers were borne on separate plants, which were not differentiated by the Havasupai.

Aside from its use in brush house construction, firewood, and fence posts, it was of little use to the Havasupai, though it was sometimes used in coil basketry (I.U., Mrs. B.J. and others), and E.U. said it was the best wood for making planting sticks.

When the seeds were shed, they covered the neighboring ground with a thick layer of “down.” Children set this “down” on fire, producing a sudden burst of flame which spread rapidly over a considerable area. The elders disapproved of this action because of the fire hazard (E.U.).

E.U. also described a “peashooter” made by removing the pith from a large section of stem and inserting a piston made from a smaller twig of the same bush. This, he said, was sufficiently powerful to kill birds and to hurt, but not seriously injure, a human.

A point about midway between Beaver Falls and the mouth of Cataract Creek on the west bank was called hatavilhewaiya because these shrubs grew there. The name was usually abbreviated to hatavil, but sometimes it was given as ‘iwilaseiya or hiseiya.

This species, abundant on the Plateau south of the Grand Canyon, was said to flower when the constellation “Hand” rose (ca. August). The name, which means “yellow plant,” was sometimes applied to other yellow flowers.

Several species of thistles were found growing in the Havasupai area, including Cirsium neomexicanum and C. nidulum. When food was scarce, hunting parties would pick the leaves, hold them in the flames of a fire until the spines were burned off, and eat them (M.T., P. B.).

This plant was abundant along the South Rim of the Grand Canyon. M.T., who gave the above name, said the seeds were knocked into a carrying basket, roasted, ground, and worked into an edible spread resembling peanut butter. Other informants failed to recognize the plant (B.B., D.I., E.U).

This plant was abundant on the open stretches of the Plateau below the yellow pines area. A myth tells how Rabbit Man, in trying to escape Sun’s wrath, crawled under this bush. The top of the bush was burned by Sun’s heat, but not the lower portion. Rabbit escaped with only a slight scorch on the back of his neck, which all rabbits retain to the present (P.B., E.U).

This plant was found growing wild in waste places on the Plateau. The seeds were thinner, though longer in gross length, than the cultivated form: hence they were sometimes called katekiyula (kiyula long). They were used in the same way as the cultivated species. M.T. said that the shells were not removed from the wild seeds.

This cultivated form had shorter, but heavier, seeds, which were purplish black in color, in contrast to the black and white striped seeds of the wild form. The cultivated seeds were obtained from the Hopi. The Havasupai seeds showed a mixture of wild and cultivated forms, indicating less care in selection of seeds.

Seeds were planted in the gardens with or near the corn. When the heads were ripe, they were cut from the stocks and dried in the sun. When dry, they were placed on an old canvas and beaten with sticks to remove the seeds. (E.U., P.B.). The seeds, in turn, were dried in the sun (P.B.), and a considerable quantity was stored away for winter use (E.U.). The seeds for the next year’s crop were selected for sweetness, dried, bundled in a cloth and set aside for spring planting (Spier 1928). Refer to Chapter 4 for information about cooking these seeds.

Cushing (1882) mentioned that oil extracted from sunflower seeds was sometimes mixed with red face paint.

This small, white aster was found along the South Rim near Grand Canyon Village. It was used as a medicine for digestive troubles. Some said to boil the whole plant and drink the resulting tea twice a day until cured. Others, however, said to use the roots only. These were pounded and boiled, and the resulting liquid was drunk. This liquid was also rubbed over the stomach. This was not a strong medicine and might be given to young children and babies, as well as adults. Both M.T. and her daughter applied this name and described this usage for the white aster (three instances) and also for Phlox spp. (two instances). P.B. gave essentially the same usage, with some modifications: the roots, which could be stored, were boiled for half an hour. P.B.’s dosage was half a cup taken three times a day before meals, for one day. (Note that P. B. undoubtedly had three meals a day, while M.T. and her daughter probably still conformed to the older pattern of two meals a day.) P. B. also used a different name, ‘ammalakamanuuna, which he also applied to Thamnosma montana.

This plant was collected near the eastern end of the Grand Canyon. It was used by the Hopi and possibly the Havasupai for food and flavoring (Spier 1928). The name means “plant smells.”

This plant was found growing frequently in the sandy soil above the village. P.B. said that the name means “woodrat feces” (’ammalka woodrat, thuca feces). He also said that this plant was formerly picked fresh, dipped in salted water, and eaten with mush or cornmeal as a condiment. This description essentially matched the Hopi usage. No mention of this use and only conflicting names were obtained from Mrs. B.J., M.M., E.U., and others. P.B.’s family may well have learned about the use of this plant from the Hopi. The terminology was highly questionable.

This was a highly scented herb growing on the talus slopes near the village. It was well known as a medicine that was prepared by pounding and placing it in water. It was frequently boiled. The resulting liquid was used as a wash on a sore or rubbed in as a liniment. The crushed herb itself was often rubbed on the skin “so that the smell will go in.” The liquid was drunk, though this practice was less common. The medicine was used primarily against pain or aches, including abdominal pain (Mrs. B.J., M.M., D.I., B.B. and others). The words within this plant’s Havasupai name mean “chuckwalla eat.”

This shrub, which was abundant near the village, was easily confused at first glance with saltbush. It was widely used for thatch in building houses in the canyon (Mrs. B.J., E.U., P. B., and others). Spier (1928) referred to it as “white willow” and said it was the preferred material.

Straight stems were used to form the back of the cradleboard (E.U., P. B., and others). The stems were also used to make arrows (Mrs. B.J., M.M.), especially for children (P.B. and others); these were the wooden, not reed, arrows. Sticks used to peg a hide to the ground when it was being stretched during tanning were made from this bush (E.U.).

Spier (1928) said that the leaves were chewed to relieve irritation in the throat.

This was found growing in waste areas on the Plateau. The name means “toothache” (yo’o tooth), though the reason for this could not be learned. It was not used for a toothache or for anything else (E.U. and others). This name was also applied to a wide variety of other yellow, daisy-like flowers.

This was an occasional weed found on the Plateau. It was a constant nuisance on the trail, for the spiny fruits got into the horses’ tails and had to be cut out (E.U., B.B. D.I., and others).

This plant, with a large, purple (fading to white), daisy-like flower, was found near the Walapai Hilltop and in the vicinity of the village. B. B. said it was used by both men and women as a perfume to counteract body odors. The leaves were ground up and carried in the clothes.

UNIDENTIFIED PLANTS

This was described as having small, white flowers in the very early spring. The leaves were boiled with corn meal to make mush (M.T.). It was said that if the plant bloomed out of season in December, a big snow storm would come. E.U. said, “I saw the flowers in December one year. I told Grandfather. He just had to go and see for himself. He said we would have a big snow, and by the 26th of December, we did.” Apparently, it grew only on the Plateau. The name was given to a sterile specimen of Antennaria (M.T.) and to Townsendia (P.B.). Other informants gave different names to these species; there was no agreement and much confusion. It would appear to have been a low, leafy plant, similar to these two species.

This plant was described as similar in appearance to Mormon tea (cimowaiya), but gray in color. P. B. said it had small, purple flowers like alfalfa. It was said to grow in a few places on the Esplanade. Like Mormon tea, it was used for medicine. A bundle of twigs was boiled for about an hour and the resulting liquid was allowed to cool. Half a cup of the dark brown liquid was drunk in the morning and again at night. If the bowels had not moved by morning it was taken again. It was also taken in case of stomach pains (P.B., E.U.).

This plant, which grew on the Plateau, had an odor resembling the turpentine broom (Thamnosma montana). E.U. said that if it was worn by a man as a perfume, it would attract women.

The leaves were eaten without cooking, in March when the plant came up. The flowers were white. B. B. and S.J. said it grew on the Red Wall area above the village. The name referred to a plant which probably resembled Thlaspi, though perhaps with a trailing habit, like Allionia. There was some suggestion that the root was eaten, rather than the leaves.

Notes

* Richard Hevly (personal communication) has pointed out that by 1985 this species was firmly established in the Havasupai area and throughout the lower Grand Canyon.

* For further discussion on this subject, see Nabhan et al. (1981) and Bretting (1982).